Effective analysis of microscopic images is essential in cellular biology and pathology, particularly for detection and quantification of genetic materials such as, for example, genes or messenger RNA, or the expression of this genetic information in the form of proteins such as through, for example, gene amplification, gene deletion, gene mutation, messenger RNA molecule quantification, or protein expression analyses. Gene amplification is the presence of too many copies of the same gene in one cell, wherein a cell usually contains two copies, otherwise known as alleles, of the same gene. Gene deletion indicates that less than two copies of a gene can be found in a cell. Gene mutation indicates the presence of incomplete or non-functional genes. Messenger RNAs (mRNA) are molecules of genetic information, synthesized from a gene reading process, that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Protein expression is the production of a given protein by a cell. If the gene coding for the given protein, determined from a protein expression process, is enhanced or excess copies of the gene or mRNA are present, the protein may be over-expressed. Conversely, if the gene coding is suppressed or absent, the protein may be under-expressed or absent.
Normal cellular behaviors are precisely controlled by molecular mechanisms involving a large number of proteins, mRNAs, and genes. Gene amplification, gene deletion, and gene mutation are known to have a prominent role in abnormal cellular behaviors through abnormal protein expression. The range of cellular behaviors of concern includes behaviors as diverse as, for example, proliferation or differentiation regulation. Therefore, effective detection and quantification in gene amplification, deletion and mutation, mRNA quantification, or protein expression analyses is necessary in order to facilitate useful research, diagnostic and prognostic tools.
There are numerous laboratory techniques directed to detection and quantification in gene amplification, deletion and mutation, mRNA quantification, or protein expression analyses. For example, such techniques include Western, Northern and Southern blots, polymerase chain reaction (“PCR”), enzyme-linked immunoseparation assay (“ELISA”), and comparative genomic hybridization (“CGH”) techniques. However, microscopy is routinely utilized because it is an informative technique, allowing rapid investigations at the cellular and sub-cellular levels while capable of being expeditiously implemented at a relatively low cost.
When microscopy is the chosen laboratory technique, the biological samples must first undergo specific detection and revelation preparations. Once the samples are prepared, a human expert typically analyzes the samples with a microscope alone in a qualitative study, or with a microscope coupled to a camera and a computer in a quantitative and generally standardized study. In some instances, the microscope may be configured for fully automatic analysis, wherein the microscope is automated with a motorized stage and focus, motorized objective changers, automatic light intensity controls and the like.
The preparation of the samples for detection may involve different types of preparation techniques that are suited to microscopic imaging analysis, such as, for example, hybridization-based and immunolabeling-based preparation techniques. Such detection techniques may be coupled with appropriate revelation techniques, such as, for example, fluorescence-based and visible color reaction-based techniques.
In Situ Hybridization (“ISH”) and Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization (“FISH”) are detection and revelation techniques used, for example, for detection and quantification in genetic information amplification and mutation analyses. Both ISH and FISH can be applied to histological or cytological samples. These techniques use specific complementary probes for recognizing corresponding precise sequences. Depending on the technique used, the specific probe may include a chemical (ISH) marker or a fluorescent (FISH) marker, wherein the samples are then analyzed using a transmission microscope or a fluorescence microscope, respectively. The use of a chemical marker or a fluorescent marker depends on the goal of the user, each type of marker having corresponding advantages over the other in particular instances.
In protein expression analyses, immunohistochemistry (“IHC”) and immunocytochemistry (“ICC”) techniques, for example, may be used. IHC is the application of immunochemistry to tissue sections, whereas ICC is the application of immunochemistry to cultured cells or tissue imprints after they have undergone specific cytological preparations such as, for example, liquid-based preparations. Immunochemistry is a family of techniques based on the use of a specific antibody, wherein antibodies are used to specifically target molecules inside or on the surface of cells. The antibody typically contains a marker that will undergo a biochemical reaction, and thereby experience a change color, upon encountering the targeted molecules. In some instances, signal amplification may be integrated into the particular protocol, wherein a secondary antibody, that includes the marker stain, follows the application of a primary specific antibody.
In both hybridization and immunolabeling studies, chromogens of different colors are used to distinguish among the different markers. However, the maximum number of markers that may be used in a study is restricted by several factors. For example, the spectral overlapping of the colors used to reveal the respective markers may be a limiting factor because dyes may absorb throughout a large portion of the visible spectrum. Accordingly, the higher the number of dyes involved in a study, the higher the risk of spectral overlapping. Further, the spectral resolution of the acquisition device may be a limiting factor and the minimal color shift that the device is able to detect must be considered.
In addition, immunochemistry, as well as chemistry in ISH, are generally considered to exhibit poor sensitivity when quantification of a marker must be achieved. However, the quantification accuracy of these techniques may be dependent upon several factors. For instance, the type of reaction used may play a role in the accuracy of the technique since the linearity of the relationship between ligand concentration and the degree of the immunochemical staining reaction may strongly depend on the reaction type. More particularly, for example, a peroxidase/anti-peroxidase method may be more linear than a biotin-avidin method. The cellular localization of the markers may also affect accuracy where, for example, if membrane and nuclear markers spatially overlap, the resulting color is a mixture of the respective colors. Accordingly, since the corresponding quantification is subjective, the accuracy of the determination may be affected. In addition, a calibration standard such as, for example, cells with known features, gels with given concentrations of the marker, or the like, may be required where a developed analysis model is applied to a new and different case. Staining kits are generally available which incorporate calibration standards. However, the calibration standard is usually only applicable to a particular specimen, such as a specific cell or a structure of a specific type which is known to exhibit constant features with respect to the standard, and may be of limited utility when applied to a sample of a different nature.
Overall, the described “colorimetric” studies present sample analysis information in color and facilitate processing and quantification of the information to thereby help to provide a diagnosis or to form a prognosis of the particular case. For illustration, the detection and quantification of the HER2 protein expression and/or gene amplification may be assessed by different approaches used in quantitative microscopy. HER2 is a membrane protein that has been shown to have a diagnostic and prognostic significance in metastatic breast cancer. Because HER2 positive patients were shown to be more sensitive to treatments including Herceptin® (a target treatment developed by Genentech), the definition of the HER2 status of metastatic breast cancers has been proven to be of first importance in the choice of the appropriate treatment protocol. This definition of the HER2 status was based on a study of samples treated with either hybridization (FISH, ISH) or immunolabeling (IHC) techniques.
In such studies, using FISH with, for example, an FDA approved kit such as PathVysion® produced by Vysis, requires an image analysis protocol for counting the number of copies of the HER2 gene present in every cell. In a normal case, two copies of the gene are found in each cell, whereas more than three copies of the gene in a cell indicate that the gene is amplified. Alternatively, using IHC with, for example, an FDA approved kit such as Herceptest® produced by Dako, requires an image analysis protocol that classified the cases into four categories depending on the intensity and localization of the HER2 specific membrane staining Current studies tend to show that these two investigation techniques (hybridization and immunolabeling) may be complementary and may help pathologists in tumor sub-type diagnosis when combined.
However, such colorimetry studies require extensive sample preparation and procedure control. Thus, when disposing of adapted staining protocols, it is critical to be able to verify that the staining for each sample matches the particular model used in the image acquisition and processing device such that useful and accurate results are obtained from the gathered information. Otherwise, the analysis may have to be repeated, starting again from the sample preparation stage, thereby possibly resulting in a costly and time-consuming process.
In a typical microscopy device based on image acquisition and processing, the magnified image of the sample must first be captured and digitized with a camera. Generally, charge coupled device (CCD) digital cameras are used in either light or fluorescence quantitative microscopy. Excluding spectrophotometers, one technique used to perform colorimetric microscopy studies includes the use of a black and white (BW) CCD camera. In such an instance, a gray level image of the sample is obtained, corresponding to a monochromatic light having a wavelength specific to the staining of the sample to be analyzed. The specific wavelength of light is obtained either by filtering a white source light via a specific narrow bandwidth filter, or by directly controlling the wavelength of the light source, using either manual or electronic controls. Images of the sample, showing the spectral response of the sample at different wavelengths, are individually captured in sequential order to facilitate the analysis. When multiple scenes or fields of view are analyzed, the typical protocol is to automate the sequence in a batch mode to conserve processing time. However, when multiple scenes, fields of view, or regions of interest are analyzed, the scene, field of view, or region of interest examined in one image acquired under one particular wavelength must correspond to a scene, field of view, or region of interested examined in a separate image acquired under a different wavelength to ensure accurate analysis of the scene, field of view, or region of interest. Furthermore, images acquired under different wavelengths must be corrected for different magnification factors produced by chromatic aberrations.
Accordingly, techniques used in colorimetric analyses of prepared samples are of limited use in the detection and quantification of species of interest due to several factors such as, for example, spectral overlapping, mixing of colors due to spatially overlapping of membrane, cytoplasmic, and nuclear markers, chromatic aberrations in the optical path, limited spectral resolution of the acquisition device, calibration particularities, subjectivity of the detection and quantification process, and inconsistencies between human operators. The image processing portion of colorimetric analysis techniques has historically been directed to the subjective detection of contrast within the prepared sample or to a complex and voluminous analysis of the sample at various specific wavelengths of light using a combination of light sources and filters. Therefore, there exists a need for preparing imaging systems to provide accurate comparisons between multiple images, scenes, fields of view and/or regions of interest in order to generate high quality data, comprising the necessary analysis information about the sample, while reducing subjectivity and inconsistency in the sample analysis.